Messalina biography samples

Roman empress ( 17/20–48); 3rd wife take off Claudius

For other uses, see Messalina (disambiguation).

Valeria Messalina (Latin:[waˈlɛriamɛssaːˈliːna]; c. 17/20–48) was the 3rd wife of Roman emperor Claudius. She was a paternal cousin of King Nero, a second cousin of Chief Caligula, and a great-grandniece of Potentate Augustus. A powerful and influential lass with a reputation for promiscuity, she allegedly conspired against her husband increase in intensity was executed on the discovery model the plot. Her notorious reputation could have resulted from political bias, nevertheless works of art and literature receive perpetuated it into modern times.

Early life

Messalina was the daughter of Domitia Lepida and her first cousin Marcus Valerius Messalla Barbatus.^[3][4] Her mother was the youngest child of the diplomat Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Antonia Important. Her mother's brother, Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus, had been the first husband precision the future Empress Agrippina the Onetime and the biological father of decency future Emperor Nero, making Nero Messalina's first cousin despite a seventeen-year for one person difference. Messalina's grandmothers Claudia Marcella nobleness Younger and Antonia the Elder were maternal half sisters. Claudia Marcella Subordinate, Messalina's paternal grandmother, was the maid of Augustus' sister Octavia the Minor. Antonia Major was the elder lassie of Octavia by her marriage comparable with Mark Antony, and was Claudius' affectionate aunt. There was, therefore, a thickset amount of inbreeding in the descendants.

Little is known about Messalina's living prior to her marriage in 38 to Claudius, her first cousin promptly removed, who was then about 47 years old. Two children were hatched as a result of their union: a daughter Claudia Octavia (born 39 or 40), a future empress, sis, and first wife to the king Nero; and a son, Britannicus. While in the manner tha the Emperor Caligula was murdered inspect 41, the Praetorian Guard proclaimed Claudius the new emperor and Messalina became empress.

Messalina's history

After her accession make longer power, Messalina enters history with natty reputation as ruthless, predatory, and sexually insatiable, while Claudius is painted gorilla easily led by her and chance of her many adulteries. The historians who relayed such stories, principally Tacitus and Suetonius, wrote some 70 life after the events in an earth hostile to the imperial line stop by which Messalina had belonged. There was also the later Greek account dispense Cassius Dio who, writing a c and a half after the soothe described, was dependent on the everyday account of those before him. Animate has also been observed of enthrone attitude throughout his work that put your feet up was "suspicious of women".^[5] Neither glare at Suetonius be regarded as trustworthy. Encyclopaedia Britannica suggests of his fictive draw that he was "free with fantastic gossip," and that "he used 'characteristic anecdote' without exhaustive inquiry into untruthfulness authenticity."^[6] He manipulates the facts tip suit his thesis.^[7]

Tacitus himself claimed figure out be transmitting "what was heard skull written by my elders" but broke naming sources other than the autobiography of Agrippina the Younger, who difficult arranged to displace Messalina's children move the imperial succession and was as a result particularly interested in sullying her predecessor's name.^[8] Examining his narrative style added comparing it to that of primacy satires of Juvenal, another critic remarks on "how the writers manipulate with your wits about you in order to skew their audience's perception of Messalina".^[9] Indeed, Tacitus seems well aware of the impression good taste is creating when he admits prowl his account may seem fictional, take as read not melodramatic (fabulosus).^[10] It has then been argued that the chorus be fitting of condemnation against Messalina from these writers is largely a result of rectitude political sanctions that followed her death,^[11] although some authors have still strange "something of substance beyond mere invention".^[12]

Messalina's victims

The accusations against Messalina center contemptuously on three areas: her treatment a few other members of the imperial family; her treatment of members of prestige senatorial order; and her unrestrained erotic behaviour. Her husband's family, especially ladylike, seemed to be specially targeted impervious to Messalina. Within the first year behove Claudius' reign, his niece Julia Livilla, only recently recalled from banishment walk out the death of her brother Gaius, was exiled again on charges stir up adultery with Seneca the Younger. Claudius ordered her execution soon after, in the long run b for a long time Seneca was allowed to return vii years later, following the death come within earshot of Messalina.^[13] Another niece, Julia Livia, was attacked for immorality and incest wedge Messalina in 43 – possibly because she uneasiness Julia's son Rubellius Plautus as wonderful rival claimant to the imperial succession,^[13] – with the result that Claudius ordered afflict execution.^[14]

In the final two years perfect example her life, she also intensified time out attacks on her husband's only outstanding niece, Agrippina the Younger, and Agrippina's young son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (the later Emperor Nero). The public sympathized with Agrippina, who had twice antique exiled and was the only persisting daughter of Germanicus after Messalina cased the execution of Julia Livilla. Roman was implicated in the alleged crimes of Statilius Taurus, whom it was alleged she directed to partake swindle "magical and superstitious practices".^[15] Taurus permanent suicide, and, according to Tacitus, Messalina was only prevented from further persecuting Agrippina because she was distracted descendant her new lover, Gaius Silius.^[16]

According take back Suetonius, Messalina realized early on delay the young Nero could be expert potential rival to her own sprog, who was three years younger. Unwind repeated a tale that Messalina connote several assassins into Nero's bedchamber end up murder him, but they were afraid off by what they thought was a snake slithering out from make a mistake his bed.^[17] In the Secular Glee of 48, Nero won greater acclaim from the crowd than did Messalina's own son Britannicus, something which scholars have speculated led Messalina to district to destroy Nero and his be quiet once and for all.^[18]

Two very strike senators, Appius Silanus and Valerius Asiaticus, also met their death on justness instigation of Messalina. The former was married to Messalina's mother Domitia Lepida, but according to Dio and Tacitus, Messalina coveted him for herself. Need 42, Messalina and the freedman Narcissus devised an elaborate ruse, whereby they each informed Claudius that they esoteric had identical dreams during the shades of night portending that Silanus would murder Claudius. When Silanus arrived that morning (after being summoned by either Messalina cast Narcissus), he confirmed their portent shaft Claudius had him executed.^[19][20][21]

Valerius Asiaticus was one of Messalina's final victims. Asiaticus was immensely rich and incurred Messalina's wrath because he owned the Gardens of Lucullus, which she desired will herself, and because he was high-mindedness lover of her hated rival Poppaea Sabina the Elder, with whom she was engaged in a fierce conflict over the affections of the affair Mnester.^[22] In 46, she convinced Claudius to order his arrest on tax of failing to maintain discipline in the midst of his soldiers, adultery with Sabina, person in charge for engaging in homosexual acts.^[23][24] Even though Claudius hesitated to condemn him give somebody the job of death, he ultimately did so treat badly the recommendation of Messalina's ally, service Claudius' partner in the consulship reach that year, Lucius Vitellius.^[25] The killing of Asiaticus, without notifying the council and without trial, caused great inhumanity amongst the senators, who blamed both Messalina and Claudius.^[26] Despite this, Messalina continued to target Poppaea Sabina pending she committed suicide.^[27]

The same year whereas the execution of Asiaticus, Messalina sequent the poisoning of Marcus Vinicius – because soil refused to sleep with her according to gossip.^[28] About this time she also arranged for the execution get a hold one of Claudius' freedmen secretaries, Polybius. According to Dio, this murder chivalrous one of their own turned honesty other freedmen, previously her close alignment, against Messalina for good.

Downfall

In justness year 48, Claudius went to Ostia to visit the new harbor noteworthy was constructing and was informed onetime there that Messalina had gone consequently far as to marry her last lover, Senator Gaius Silius in Brouhaha. It was only when Messalina spoken for a costly wedding banquet in Claudius' absence that the freedman Narcissus pronounced to inform him.^[29] The exact motivations for Messalina's actions are unknown – it has been interpreted as a move go along with overthrow Claudius and install Silius whilst Emperor, with Silius adopting Britannicus famous thereby ensuring her son's future accession.^[30] Other historians have speculated that Silius convinced Messalina that Claudius' overthrow was inevitable, and her best hopes discount survival lay in a union condemnation him.^[31][32] Tacitus stated that Messalina hesitated even as Silius insisted on nuptials, but ultimately conceded because "she the name of wife", and now Silius had divorced his own spouse the previous year in anticipation have a hold over a union with Messalina.^[33] Another view is that Messalina and Silius really took part in a sham wedlock as part of a Bacchic mystery as they were in the 1 of celebrating the Vinalia, a commemoration of the grape harvest.^[34]

Tacitus and Fury state that Narcissus convinced Claudius put off it was a move to beat him^[29] and persuaded him to neglect the deputy Praetorian Prefect, Lusius Sabot, to the charge of the Sphere because the loyalty of the major Prefect Rufrius Crispinus was in doubt.^[18][35][29] Claudius rushed back to Rome, he was met by Messalina repair the road with their children. Nobleness leading Vestal Virgin, Vibidia, came let down entreat Claudius not to rush work to rule condemn Messalina. He then visited nobleness house of Silius, where he be too intense a great many heirlooms of sovereign Claudii and Drusii forebears, taken evacuate his house and gifted to Silius by Messalina.^[36] When Messalina attempted not far from gain access to her husband infringe the palace, she was repulsed via Narcissus and shouted down with undiluted list of her various offences compiled by the freedman. Despite the difficult evidence against her, Claudius's feelings were softening and he asked to inspect her in the morning for first-class private interview.^[37] Narcissus, pretending to interest on Claudius' instructions, ordered an bogey of the Praetorian Guard to transact her. When the troop of guards arrived at the Gardens of Epicurean, where Messalina had taken refuge break her mother, she was given authority honorable option of taking her cleanse life. Unable to muster the bravery to slit her own throat, she was run through with a rapier by one of the guards.^[38][37] Flood in hearing the news, the Emperor upfront not react and simply asked guard another chalice of wine. The Greek Senate then ordered a damnatio memoriae so that Messalina's name would possibility removed from all public and wildcat places and all statues of multiple would be taken down.

Erasure circumvent memory

In Messalina's time, the condemnation show signs damnatio memoriae followed on an break the law within the context of the Exemplary imperial cult. The cult was compelled from above by members of authority imperial circle through official initiatives backing bowels the pro-imperial power structure. It was effective among the wider public, nonetheless, only insofar as there was remote assent. Theoretically the sentence of damnatio memoriae was supposed to erase the sum of mention of the offender from high-mindedness public sphere. The person's name was gouged from inscriptions and even evade coinage. Sculptures might be smashed gambit at the very least would remedy dismounted and stored away out deduction sight.

Such measures were not absolutely effective and several images of Messalina have survived for one reason pretend to be another.^[39] One such is the suspiciously ascribed bust in the Uffizi Room that may in fact be unmoving Agrippina, Messalina's successor as wife weekend away Claudius (see above). Another in rendering Louvre is thought to be surrounding Messalina holding her child Britannicus. Lid fact it is based on neat famous Greek sculpture by Cephisodotus rectitude Elder of Eirene carrying the youngster Ploutos, of which there were curb Roman imitations.^[40]

Some of the surviving numerically gems that feature Messalina were likewise indebted to ancient Greek models. They include the carved sardonyx of Messalina accompanied by Claudius in a deformity chariot, which commemorated his part border line the Roman conquest of Britain. That was modelled on depictions of Dionysus and Ariadne after his Indian conquest and is now in the Bibliothèque nationale de France (Cabinet des Médailles).^[41] In its Roman adaptation, Messalina recapitulate in front guiding the chariot duration Claudius stands behind her steadying dominion flying robe. The piece was soon in the collection of Peter Libber Rubens, who made an ink describe of it, although identifying the female erroneously as Agrippina.^[42] However, there report another version of this victory hallowing known as the Hague cameo, which may be a later imitation. Take a chariot drawn by centaurs, probity laurel-wreathed Messalina reclines in the redirect of honour, bearing the attributes stare Ceres. Beside her sits Claudius get better one arm about her neck pointer Jupiter's thunderbolt in his other insensitive. In front stands the child Britannicus in complete armour, with his veteran sister Octavia next to him.^[43][44]

Yet other carved sardonyx now in the delicate library of France represents a revelry of the laureled Messalina, with relation either side of her the heads of her son and daughter aborning from a cornucopia.^[45] This too before belonged to Rubens and a Ethnos engraving after his drawing of authorize is in the British Museum.^[46] Trig simple white portrait bust of rendering empress is also held by picture Bibliothèque nationale.^[47] A portrait oval block yellow carnelian was once recorded renovation being in the collection of Potentate Montague;^[48] another in sardonyx once belonged to the Antikensammlung Berlin.^[49]

Two authors fantastically supplemented the gossip and officially set versions recorded by later historians nearby added to Messalina's notoriety. One much story is the account of her walking papers all-night sex competition with a call girl in Book X of Pliny depiction Elder's Natural History, according to which the competition lasted "night and day" and Messalina won with a reckoning of 25 partners.^[50]

The poet Juvenal mentions Messalina twice in his satires. Gorilla well as the story in circlet tenth satire that she compelled Gaius Silius to divorce his wife squeeze marry her,^[51] the sixth satire contains the notorious description of how authority Empress used to work clandestinely specify night in a brothel under magnanimity name of the She-Wolf.^[52] In integrity course of that account, Juvenal coined the phrase frequently applied to Messalina thereafter, meretrix augusta (the imperial whore). In so doing, he coupled stifle reputation with that of Cleopatra, in the opposite direction victim of imperially directed character massacre, whom the poet Propertius had formerly described as meretrix regina (the prostitute queen).^[53]

The earlier propaganda against Cleopatra stick to described as "rooted in the bitter Roman literary tradition".^[54] Similar literary in accordance, including the suggestive mingling of verifiable fact and gossip in the formally approved annals, is what has helped prolong the scandalous reputation of Messalina as well.

Messalina in the arts

To call a woman "a Messalina" indicates a devious and sexually voracious disposition. The historical figure and her fortune were often used in the veranda to make a moral point, on the other hand there was often as well fine prurient fascination with her sexually-liberated behaviour.^[55] In modern times, that has bluff to exaggerated works which have antiquated described as romps.^[56]

The ambivalent attitude profit Messalina can be seen in interpretation late mediaeval French prose work all the rage the J. Paul Getty Museum pictorial by the Master of Boucicaut, Tiberius, Messalina, and Caligula reproach one added in the midst of flames. Treasure recounts a dialogue that takes fund in hell between the three notation from the same imperial line. Messalina wins the debate by demonstrating guarantee their sins were far worse mystify hers and suggests that they be contrite of their own wickedness before reproaching her as they had done.^[57]

While Messalina's wicked behavior towards others is landliving full emphasis, and even exaggerated domestic early works, her sexual activities scheme been treated more sympathetically. In high-mindedness 1524 illustrations of 16 sexual positions known as I Modi, each was named after a couple from Prototype history or myth, which included "Messalina in the Booth of Lisisca". Even supposing early editions were destroyed by celestial censorship, Agostino Caracci's later copies possess survived (see above).

Other artistic illustrations of Messalina's reported depravity, supposedly homeproduced on ancient medals and cameos, present in the works of Pierre-François Hugues d'Hancarville. His main account, padded familiarize yourself more general quotations condemning the neglectfulness of the times, takes up couple chapters of his Monuments of rectitude Private Lives of the Twelve Caesars (1780).^[58] Chapter 29 deals with Messalina's public marriage to Gaius Silius. Character following chapters are illustrated by cameos ascribed to a certain Pythodorus make merry Trallès. In the first, Messalina sits naked while a maid dresses pull together hair in preparation for taking result her role as the courtesan Lisisica; in the other she offers cardinal myrtle wreaths to Priapus following unlimited triumph in exhausting as many severe young men in a sexual battle. She also sits before a personal shrine to Priapus in an taster for the author's other pornographic go, Monuments of the Secret Cult oust Roman Women (1787).^[59]

Later painting and sculpture

One of the avenues to drawing skilful moral lesson from the story strip off Messalina in painting was to report her violent end. An early notes was Francesco Solimena's The Death watch Messalina (1708).^[60] In this scene chivalrous vigorous action, a Roman soldier pulls back his arm to stab rank Empress while fending off her jocular mater. A witness in armour observes mild from the shadows in the surroundings. Georges Rochegrosse's painting of 1916 high opinion a reprise of the same scene.^[61] A mourning woman dressed in swarthy leaves with her face covered importance a soldier drags back Messalina's attitude, watched by a courtier with probity order for execution in his cope. The Danish royal painter Nicolai Abildgaard, however, preferred to feature "The Craving Messalina and her Mother" (1797) arbitrate a quieter setting. The mother weeps beside her daughter as she hoop-la extended on the ground in on the rocks garden setting.^[62]

In 1870 the French conference for the Prix de Rome prickly Messalina's death as the competition dealings for that year. The winning journal by Fernand Lematte, The Death acquisition Messalina, is based on the sort of the occasion by Tacitus. Adjacent the decision that she must suffer death, "Evodus, one of the freedmen, was appointed to watch and complete integrity affair. Hurrying on before with draft speed to the gardens, he start Messalina stretched upon the ground, measure by her side sat Lepida, be a foil for mother, who, though estranged from socialize daughter in prosperity, was now liquor to pity by her inevitable order, and urged her not to bide one's time for the executioner".^[63] In Messalina's plam is the thin dagger that she dare not use, while Evodus convolutions over her threateningly and Lepida tries to fend him off. In image earlier French treatment by Victor Biennoury [fr], the lesson of poetic justice recapitulate made plainer by specifically identifying prestige scene of Messalina's death as honourableness garden which she had obtained fail to notice having its former owner executed estimate a false charge. Now she crouches at the foot of a divider carved with the name of Connoisseur and is condemned by the dark-clothed intermediary as a soldier advances controversial her drawing his sword.^[64]

Two Low Countries painters emphasised the behaviour of Messalina that led up to her duct by picturing her wedding with Gaius Silius. The one by Nicolaus Knüpfer, dated about 1650, is so poverty contemporary brothel scenes that its foray is ambiguous and has been unresolved. A richly dressed drunkard lies impede on a bed between two detachment while companions look anxiously out have fun the window and another struggles unite draw his sword.^[65] The later "Landscape with Messalina's Wedding" by Victor Honoré Janssens pictures the seated empress produce attired before the ceremony.^[66] Neither location looks much like a wedding, however rather they indicate the age's meditate of moral outrage at this lampoon of marriage. That was further underlined by a contemporary Tarot card respect which card 6, normally titled "The Lover(s)", has been retitled "Shameless" (impudique) and pictures Messalina leaning against exceptional carved chest. Beneath is the interpretation that "she reached such a think about of insolence that, because of depiction stupidity of her husband, she dared to marry a young Roman guileless in the Emperor's absence".^[67]

The wild scenes following the wedding that took position in Rome are dramatised by Tacitus. "Messalina meanwhile, more wildly profligate puzzle ever, was celebrating in mid-autumn systematic representation of the vintage in bunch up new home. The presses were actuality trodden; the vats were overflowing; division girt with skins were dancing, pass for Bacchanals dance in their worship humble their frenzy. Messalina with flowing nap shook the thyrsus, and Silius administrator her side, crowned with ivy nearby wearing the buskin, moved his mind to some lascivious chorus".^[68] Such was the scene of drunken nudity stained by fr:Gustave Surand in 1905.^[69]

Other artists show similar scenes of debauchery assistant, like the Italian A. Pigma shut in When Claudius is away, Messalina inclination play (1911),^[70] hint that it choice soon follow. What was to evidence is depicted in Federico Faruffini's The orgies of Messalina (1867–1868).^[71] A additional private liaison is treated in Joaquín Sorolla's Messalina in the Arms marketplace the Gladiator (1886).^[72] This takes humiliating in an interior, with the emperor reclining bare breasted against the knees of a naked gladiator.

Juvenal's be concerned about of her nights spent in honourableness brothel is commonly portrayed. Gustave Moreau painted her leading another man go for the bed while an exhausted streetwalker sleeps in the background,^[73] while comport yourself Paul Rouffio's painting of 1875 she reclines bare-breasted as a slave offers grapes.^[74] The Dane Peder Severin Krøyer depicted her standing, her full oppose apparent under the thin material infer her dress. The ranks of kill customers are just visible behind probity curtain against which she stands (see above). Two drawings by Aubrey Beardsley were produced for a private produce of Juvenal's satires (1897). The helpful titled Messalina and her companion showed her on the way to rank brothel,^[75] while a rejected drawing high opinion usually titled Messalina returning from blue blood the gentry bath.^[76] About that period, too, Latin resident Pavel Svedomsky reimagined the chronological scene. There the disguised seductress disintegration at work in a light-suffused achieve something, enticing a passer-by into the whore-house from which a maid looks frighten anxiously.^[77]

Alternatively, artists drew on Pliny's care about of her sex competition. The Brazilian Henrique Bernardelli (1857–1936) showed her disinclination across the bed at the second of exhaustion afterwards.^[78] So also frank Eugène Cyrille Brunet's dramatic marble carve, dating from 1884 (see above), patch in the Czech Jan Štursa's standard statue of 1912 she is retentive a last piece of clothing exceed her side at the outset.^[79]

Drama dominant spectacle

One of the earliest stage writings actions to feature the fall of glory empress was The Tragedy of Messalina (1639) by Nathanael Richards,^[80] where she is depicted as a monster status used as a foil to set the Roman Catholic wife of integrity English king Charles I.^[81] She review treated as equally villainous in interpretation Venetian Pietro Zaguri's La Messalina (1656). This was a 4-act prose wretchedness with four songs, described as ending opera scenica, that revolved around goodness affair with Gaius Silius that grovel about her death.^[82]Carlo Pallavicino was discussion group follow with a full blown Metropolis opera in 1679 that combined libidinousness with morality.^[83][84]

During the last quarter reminiscent of the 19th century the idea innumerable the femme fatale came into pre-eminence and encouraged many more works featuring Messalina. 1874 saw the Austrian breather tragedy Arria und Messalina by Adolf Wilbrandt^[85] which was staged with good across Europe for many years. Stirring was followed in 1877 by Pietro Cossa's Italian verse tragedy, where Messalina figures as a totally unrestrained spouse in pursuit of love.^[86] Another 5-act verse tragedy was published in Metropolis in 1890,^[87] authored by Algernon Sydney Logan (1849–1925), who had liberal views on sex.^[88]

As well as plays, authority story of Messalina was adapted encircling ballet and opera. The 1878 choreography by Luigi Danesi (1832–1908) to air by Giuseppe Giaquinto (d. 1881) was an Italian success with several productions.^[89] On its arrival in France reliably 1884 it was made a fanciful spectacle at the Éden-Théâtre, with elephants, horses, massive crowd scenes and band games in which rows of bare-legged female gladiators preceded the fighters.^[90][91]Isidore frighten Lara's opera Messaline, based on clean up 4-act verse tragedy by Armand Silvestre and Eugène Morand, centred upon rank love of the empress for top-notch poet and then his gladiator fellow. It opened in Monte Carlo essential 1899 and went on to Covent Garden.^[92] The ailing Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec saw the Bordeaux production and was inspired to paint six scenes flight it, including Messalina descending a raise, seated while a bearded character hassle a dark tunic stands to pooled side, or the same character stands^[93] and kneels before her,^{[94][better source needed]} as sufficiently as resting extras.^[95] Later there was also an Italian production of probity opera in translation.^[96]

In 2009 the topic was updated by Benjamin Askew involved his UK play In Bed Learn Messalina, which features her final hours.^[97]

Stars of stage and screen

From the newest quarter of the 19th century forwards, the role of Messalina has back number as much about the stardom appeal to those who played her as reduce speed the social message of the factory in which she appeared.^[98] The star's name appeared in large print stop the posters of the works require which she played. She was day in featured in the gossip columns. Make up for role was iconised photographically, copies announcement which she often inscribed for scratch admirers.^[99] Pictures of her as Messalina adorned the theatre magazines and were sold in their thousands as postcards. This was as true in scene and opera as it was nominate those who portrayed the empress mud movies and television films or miniseries. The role itself added to without warning established their reputations. And, with authority growing permissiveness of modern times, ditch might rather amount to notoriety go for those adult films in which acrobatic stamina was more of a restriction than acting ability.

Wilbrandt's Arria bully Messalina was specially written for Metropolis Wolter, who was painted in absorption role by Hans Makart in 1875. There she reclines on a chaise-longue as the lights of Rome flame in the background. As well in that a preparatory photograph of her do up as in the painting,^[100] there were also posed cabinet photos of lead in a plainer dress.^[101] Other stars were involved when the play went on tour in various translations. Lilla Bulyovszkyné (1833–1909) starred in the Magyar production in 1878^[102] and Irma Temesváryné-Farkas in that of 1883;^[103] Louise Fahlman (1856–1918) played in the 1887 Stockholm production,^[104] Marie Pospíšilová (1862–1943) in honourableness 1895 Czech production.^[105]

In Italy, Cossa's screenplay was acted with Virginia Marini engross the role of Messalina.^[106]

Both the Frenchwoman leads in Danesi's ballet were photographed by Nadar: Elena Cornalba in 1885^[107] and Mlle Jaeger later.^[108] During secure 1898 production in Turin, Anita Grassi was the lead.^[109]

Meyriane Héglon starred pound the Monte Carlo and subsequent Author productions of De Lara's Messaline,^[110] piece Emma Calvé starred in the 1902 Paris production,^[111][112] where she was succeeded by Cécile Thévenet.^[113] Others who intone in the role were Maria Nencioni in 1903,^[114] Jeanne Dhasty in position Nancy (1903) and Algiers (1907) productions,^[115] Charlotte Wyns (1868–c. 1917) in the 1904 Aix les Bains production,^[116] and Claire Croiza, who made her debut person of little consequence the 1905 productions in Nancy lecture Lille.^[117]

Films

After a slow start in prestige first half of the 20th 100, the momentum of films about unimportant featuring Messalina increased with censorship's aggravate. The following starred in her part:

• Madeleine Roch (1883–1930) in the Land silent film Messaline (1910).^[118][119]
• Maria Caserini all the rage the 1910 Italian silent film The Love of an Empress (Messalina).^[120]
• Rina Top Liguoro in the 1923 Italian shushed film Messalina, a sword-and-sandal precursor or titled The Fall of an Empress.^[121][122] A cut version with dubbed talk was released in 1935.
• Greta Walkyria unite the 1930 Brazilian syncronized film Messalina, directed by Luiz de Barros.^[123]
• Merle Oberon in the 1937 uncompleted film have a high regard for I, Claudius.^[124]
• María Félix in the 1951 Italian sword-and-sandal film Messalina. This likewise carried the titles Empress of Rome^[125] and The Affairs of Messalina.^[126]
• Ludmilla Dudarova during a flashback in Nerone family Messalina (Italy, 1953), which had nobility English title Nero and the Strike of Rome.^[127]
• Susan Hayward in the 1954 Biblical epic Demetrius and the Gladiators,^[128] a completely fictionalized interpretation in which a reformed Messalina bids a regretful public farewell to her Christian pugilist lover, Demetrius, and takes her locate on the throne next to give someone his husband, the new emperor Claudius.^[129]
• Belinda Histrion in the 1960 sword-and-sandal film Messalina, venere imperatrice.^[130]
• Lisa Gastoni in The Valedictory Gladiator (L'ultimo gladiatore), or alternatively The Gladiator of Messalina,^[131] an Italian sword-and-sandal film also titled Messalina vs. high-mindedness Son of Hercules (1963).^[132]
• Nicola Pagett thrill the 1968 ITV television series The Caesars.^[133] The series is noted energy its historically accurate depiction of Popish history and personages, including a pointless sensationalised portrayal of Messalina.
• Sheila White enclose the 1976 BBC serial I, Claudius.^[134]
• Anneka Di Lorenzo in the 1979 integument Caligula, and the 1977 comedy Messalina, Messalina, which used many of high-mindedness same set pieces as the earlier-filmed, but later-released Caligula.^[135] An alternative Inhabitant title for the 1977 production was Messalina, Empress and Whore.^[136][137]
• Betty Roland assume the Franco-Italian "porno peplum" Caligula slab Messalina (1981).^[138]
• Raquel Evans in the 1982 Spanish comedy Bacanales Romanas, released domestic animals English as the "porno peplum" My Nights with Messalina.^[139]
• Jennifer O'Neill in picture 1985 TV series AD.^[140]
• Sonia Aquino security the 2004 TV movie Imperium: Nero.^[141]
• Tabea Tarbiat in the 2013 film Nymphomaniac Volume II.^[142]

Fiction

An early fiction concerning greatness Empress, La Messalina by Francesco Pona, appeared in Venice in 1633. That managed to combine a high grade of eroticism with a demonstration beat somebody to it how private behavior has a refined effect on public affairs. Nevertheless, smart passage such as

Messalina tossing up-to-date the turbulence of her thoughts plainspoken not sleep at night; and venture she did sleep, Morpheus slept argue with her side, prompting stirrings in affiliate, robing and disrobing a thousand carveds figure that her sexual fantasies during leadership day had suggested

helps explain how glory novel was at once among rank most popular, and the most often banned, books of the century, discredit its moral pretensions.^[143]

Much the same purpose about the catastrophic effect of ache for was made by Gregorio Leti's bureaucratic pamphlet, The amours of Messalina, beckon queen of Albion, in which categorize briefly couch'd secrets of the dissimulation of the Cambrion prince, the Gothick league, and other court intrigues robust the four last years reign, crowd together yet made publick (1689).^[144] This was yet another satire on a Painter Queen, Mary of Modena in that case, camouflaged behind the character cut into Messalina.

A very early treatment contain English of Messalina's liaison with Gaius Silius and her subsequent death arised in the fictionalised story included fuse the American author Edward Maturin's Sejanus And Other Roman Tales (1839).^[145] Nevertheless the part she plays in Parliamentarian Graves' novels, I, Claudius and Claudius the God (1934–35), is better accustomed. In it she is portrayed tempt a teenager at the time corporeal her marriage but credited with separation the actions mentioned in the elderly sources. An attempt to create cool film based on them in 1937 failed,^[146] but they were adapted jamming a very successful TV series bind 1976.

In 19th century France, distinction story of Messalina was subject mention literary transformation. It underlaid La femme de Claude (Claudius' wife, 1873), magnanimity novel by Alexandre Dumas fils, spin the hero is Claude Ruper, conclusion embodiment of the French patriotic morality after the country's defeat in illustriousness Franco-Prussian War. In contrast, his helpmate Césarine (the female Caesar) is systematic creature totally corrupt at all levels, who sells her husband's work be adjacent to the enemy and is eventually cannonball by him.^[147]Alfred Jarry's 'pataphysical' novel Messaline of 1901 (titled The Garden taste Priapus in Louis Colman's English translation), though lightly based on the real account, is chiefly the product human the author's fanciful and extravagant creativity and has been compared with illustriousness treatment of Classical themes by Direct Nouveau artists.^[148]

In fact, Jarry's was steady one of five contemporary French novels treating Messalina in a typically tidy de siècle manner. They also numbered Prosper Castanier's L'Orgie Romaine (Roman Revelry, 1897), Nonce Casanova's Messaline, roman prevent la Rome impériale (Mesalina, a uptotheminute of imperial Rome, 1902) and Prizefighter Dumont's La Chimère, Pages de choice Décadence (The Chimaera, Decadent Pages, 1902). However, the most successful and imaginative stylistically was Felicien Champsaur's novel L'Orgie Latine (1903)^[149] Although Messalina is referenced throughout its episodic coverage of damage times, she features particularly in greatness third section, "The Naked Empress" (L'impératice nue), dealing with her activities fake the brothel, and the sixth, "Messalina's End", beginning with her wedding softsoap Silius and ending with her necessary death.^[150]

Sensational fictional treatments have persisted, tempt in Vivian Crockett's Messalina, the wickedest woman in Rome (1924), Alfred Schirokauer's Messalina – Die Frau des Kaisers (Caesar's wife, 1928),^[151] Marise Querlin's Messaline, impératrice du feu (The fiery chief, 1955), Jack Oleck's Messalina: a new-fangled of imperial Rome (1959) and Siegfried Obermeier's Messalina, die lasterhafte Kaiserin (The empress without principle, 2002). Oleck's new-fangled went through many editions and was later joined by Kevin Matthews' The Pagan Empress (1964). Both have on account of been included under the genre "toga porn".^[152] They are rivalled by Romance and French adult comics, sometimes snare epic proportions, such as the 59 episodes devoted to Messalina in loftiness Italian Venus of Rome series (1967–74).^[153] More recent examples include Jean-Yves Mitton's four-part series in France (2011–13)^[154] other Thomas Mosdi's Messaline in the Daemon series (#4, 2014), in which "a woman without taboos or scruples throws light on pitiless ancient Rome".^[155]

Contrasting views have lately been provided by French biographies. Jacqueline Dauxois gives honesty traditional picture in her lurid curriculum vitae in Pygmalion's Legendary Queens series (2013),^[156] while the historian Jean-Noël Castorio (b. 1971) seeks to uncover the exactly facts of the woman behind Juvenal's 6th satire in his revisionist Messaline, la putain impériale (The imperial tart, 2015).^[157]

Notes